Environment degradation Essay Example for Free

Environment degradation Essay This is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources for instance water, soil and even air. In environmental degradation, the ecosystem is destroyed and wildlife undergoes extinction. There are many forms of environmental degradation that are of negative impact to agriculture. For instance, when habitats are destroyed, biodiversity is lost and natural resources are depleted. The environment is most affected as organisms which give it life are no more (Schertenleib, Forster Belevi, n. d). The earthworms that enrich soil fertility are killed by soil pollution. This means that if earthworms are all eliminated, the soil will not be fertile. The degradation of the environment can occur naturally, or through human processes which includes different kinds of pollution. Areas of concern in the same concept are loss of rain forests, air pollutions and the ozone depletion. The marine environment is also affected. These kinds of pollutions are known to occur all over the world and the blame is on the people themselves for the activities they carry out. This has poisoned the planet’s oceans and even the remote areas. Major disasters like oil spills have ruined the local environment. All these hazards can be curbed by individuals by stopping the constant pollution of the environment. To some extents, different organizations have been formed to help rehabilitate locations that have been affected. One way to do this is urban agriculture. With urban agriculture, the environment can be conserved since the wastes from industries can be converted to be fertilizers in the farms around the cities. Statistical facts It is estimated that 50% of the world’s populations live in cities (UNFPA, 2007). In the cities, most populations settle there for various reasons such as studies and seeking for employment. As economic pressures mount, the urban population engages in urban agriculture as labor is available with large population in urban centers. The growing of crops and rearing of animals in the urban areas has become common. About 800 million people are involved in urban agriculture world wide and this has contributed to the feeding urban residents (Schertenleib, Forster Belevi, n. d). It is definite that with food production or rather the general production of farm outputs, the city residents can get a plenty supply of food in their respective areas of residence. With large populations in the cities and with plenty food products from urban agriculture, there will not be any instance of food deficiency. Urban residents with low income spend between 40 percent and 60 percent of their income on food every year (RUAF, n. d). The only remedy to this is that these low income residents can start practicing urban agriculture to supplement the expenditures on food. If they participate in urban agriculture, they will be able to save up to 60% of their incomes at the end of each year (Neondo, 2003). The money they would have spent on buying food can be saved and used to develop other areas of the economy. This means a lot of to the growth of the economy of the particular country. It is expected that by 2015, about 26 cities in the world will have a population of 10 million or even more (FAO, n. d). To be able to manage these populations, countries are obliged to concentrate in urban agriculture because they have little choices left. It is therefore encouraged for urban dwellers to practice heavily on urban agriculture, with an objective of keeping the country away from food shortage come 2015(FAO, n. d). 2. The spectrum of urban agriculture and the function of relevant organizations Urban agriculture has some aspects that distinguish it from rural agriculture. One of them is the fact that it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system. It is evident that urban agriculture is embedded in the urban ecosystem of which it interacts with. Such linkages involve using urban residents as laborers and the use of typical urban resources for instance organic waste as compost and urban waste water for irrigation. In urban agriculture, there is a direct link with urban consumers and direct positive and negative impacts on urban ecology (Amin, 2002). Urban agriculture is also characterized by being part of the urban food system and competing for urban land with other urban functions. It is also influenced by other urban policies and plans. Some of the organizations that influence urban agriculture both directly and indirectly are Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC), Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (UPA), and the Resource Centers on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF Foundation)

Techniques for Evaluation of Evidences in Forensic Casework

Techniques for Evaluation of Evidences in Forensic Casework Modern Techniques Used For the Evaluation of Evidences Collected In Forensic Casework: A Review Abstract In the modern era, many technological developments have been made in the field of science as well as forensic science which stand powerful and strong to overcome the issues involved in forensic casework. In this review, three emerging techniques have been discussed that proved helpful for the forensic analysis. One of them is Stereo lithography which is being used for prototyping purposes which involves fabrication of three dimensional structures (3D modeling) for this purpose some complex mathematical measurements, biological and chemical informational data is required. At the second number, Ambient mass spectrometry (ambient MS) comes which is also a very emerging and powerful method for the identification of explosives materials even at the nanogram levels, for the analysis of pharmaceutical products (e.g. tablets), authentication of ink and document, identification of biological fluids such as urine and blood plasma and also for the testing of metabolites present in breathâ€℠¢s air. Third most widely used technology for glass fragments analysis is Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), even for the trace evidence collected from the criminal site. Keywords: Forensic casework, Prototyping, 3D modeling, Ambient MS, metabolites. Introduction These three powerful techniques are mentioned below: Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS): Glass elements represent a very valuable class of evidence, even in trace amount. Many other materials that present in trace amount, they are simply moved from victim to defendant and ignored very simply by the accused. While in case of broken glass particles, even minor particles can be proved very helpful to find important ways of solving the hurdle like the direction and speed of the bullets and their impact on the glass that is being analyzed(1). LA-ICP-MS is a very sensitive machine that converts the glass materials into very small size, even up to their atomic size.(2) After that the matching is done of the sample that collected from the crime site. Then the similarities are checked and make the statement about the accused person, on the basis of the evaluation of evidence, collected from a crime site. LA-ICP-MS has another application of detection of non-metals and metals, even they are traces at very min or quantity(3). Stereo lithography: Rapid Prototyping technique that uses a laser beam to develop a sharp image of layer by solidifying or hardening of the photopolymer material(4). It develops images and specific 3D models by combining with Computer Aided Designing (CAD) that includes 3D confirmation point exchanging. In this way it helps to create images.(5) (6) For the analysis of different evidences, different operational 3D models are available. One of them is prototyping that is a very popular and accurate model for the manufacturing of images at high levels(7). CAD plans combine with this machine to generate 3D models in layer by layer sequence.(5, 8) Laser sintering and many other imaging processes are available like stereo lithography which involves the flow or movement of photopolymers like a jet in an inkjet apparatus.(9, 10) Ambient mass spectrometry: Ambient MS technology has been under considerations in this study, as it is the very rapidly emerging method for the identification of surface directly regardless any treatment before analyzing(11). This technology is very speedy and gives accurate results and facilitates as it involves no purification and removal of sample for the surface analysis. At Crime site many evidences present and different identification analysis are being done to study the toxicology and chemical residue concentrations. For this purpose desorption electrospray ionization (DESI)(12, 13),direct analysis in real time (DART)(14), plasma assisted desorption ionization (PADI)(15)and extractive electrospray surface ionization (EESI)(16), techniques play their important part. Working Principle of Technologies: LA-ICP-MS: This process is carried out by ICP-MS machine which involves three steps procedure(17), firstly the sample introduction mechanism in which the sample is being installed to the apparatus, and then the generated ions transfer into plasma and interface tube and last step involves the detection by using mass spectrometer detector.(17)MS was firstly built for the liquid sample analysis but now this technology is being used for gaseous as well as solid materials. A decade ago, solution nebulization (SN) mechanism was being used,(2, 3, 18) often for the introduction of sample into the MS machine for forensic analysis but it involved very lengthy and time consuming protocol , so to overcome this issue now a days ,sample introduction is being done by laser ablation (LA)(19-22). To generate ions of the sample, laser beam is used that focused on the analyzing sample .After that generated ions or ablated elements are further passed out to the next chamber, termed as plasma and MS interface region, digestion and ionization processes are being carried out for the sample in it. At the third stage for the isotopic and elemental examination, the generated ions by second chamber are transferred to the mass spectrometer detector. Then MS detector collects the ions and separates them on the basis of their charge to mass ratio and builds an analysis on that base identification of the unknown samples is done. Accordingly, solution nebulization (SN) requires high amount of sample to being analyzed even in milligrams (23-27), while some micrograms of the sample in quantity are just enough for laser ablation (LA) method. The main advantage of using laser ablation (LA) is no risk of contamination and loss of sample. Through a study, it is confirmed that laser ablation required only minimum 0.9 ÃŽ ¼g mass of sample for forensic glass analysis, while for SN system this amount range exceeded up to 500 ÃŽ ¼g to 2000 ÃŽ ¼g. Stereo lithography: Exposure of specific lengths of radioactive rays to the liquid polymer can converted it into the solid phase very quickly in this replication based process.(28) Ultra violet (UV) of very intensity is being fallen on the liquid layer of the photopolymer. By the UV light focusing onto the sample, some chemical changes occur that converts the liquid sample into the solid phase. This process involves the drawing of layers with the use of UV light onto the liquid sample surface(29). The conversion of liquid phase into solid phase is due to polymerization of the sample by UV light. This technique completes its process with the combination of different computer soft wares like CAD and CAE. Different types of liquid photopolymers are currently available that are being utilized for stereo lithography.(5) Many polymers are very strong, can resist in high temperature condition and low moisture situations. Oxygen inhibition is the big short coming that is being faced in prototyping technique by acrylates which are cured by UV rays. With the use of cationic and polymerization,(30) the hybrids are become able to test different types of liquid samples and this test involves the use of UV light. FDA gave approval to use some materials for these purposes are epoxy based material, rubbers and silicon like materials etc. Many other materials like nylon, polycarbonate, ABS and some type of resins are available in the market that can be used in the stereo lithography apparatus. In 1988, this system was developed for the forensic analysis. Ambient mass spectrometry: Cooks and co-researchers developed an ambient desorption method that involves desorption and ionization of sample collected from crime site, with the help of electrospray machine. For the identification of biological samples(31, 32), environmental study(33) and to check the pharmaceuticals products validity(34), in the field of forensics very modified techniques are settled that show accurate results, one of them is DESI as shown in Figure 1.(a)(35-37). For the chemical residues analysis as well as drugs of accused, a new approach was developed alongside the DESI termed as DART by Cody and his partners, although DESI is a very sensitive and accurate method(38). Ionization of particles is done by the ejection of nitrogen and helium light onto the surface in DART method as shown in Figure 1. (b). McCoustra developed a new emerging method that ionizes the material with the use of plasma source, termed as PADI as shown in Figure 1. (c). Zenobi, a scientist settled an instrument known as EESI to ionize the materials or particles with the use of directly inserted gal with full speed into the electro spray region of the mass spectrometry apparatus, in which the desorption of particles is done by the continuous flow of gas and this method helps to analyze the liquids and other solutions(39).   Ã‚   (a) (b) (c) Figure1. Schematics of source: (a) DESI (b) DART (c) PADI Applications in Forensics Forensic glass Analysis: Recently, FBI and other forensics groups have been involved in the usage of LA-ICP-MS as it has major application of analysis of broken glass, collected from a crime site, although this technology requires very big amount to run. Stereo lithography: It has current issues related applications like to study the anatomy of the body shape, it’s very useful in surgeries development (e.g. orthopedic) (5).For the development of prosthetic devices , stereo lithography’s use have been increased quite prominently . MRI data analysis and identification of bone injury produced by trauma have been carried out in recent time by this method. Identification of metabolites from breath: As the breath includes so many types of metabolites through which a lot of information about an accused can be generated. Metabolites can give information about meals and recently use of drug or alcohol by the suspect and it can also recognize the biomarkers(40). Ink analysis and document verification: The identification of inks used in writing of the documents or any other confidential report can prove the authenticity of the document in the law court. Ingredients of ink like organic solvents are separated using liquid chromatography and then further analyzed by mass spectrometry(34, 41). Conclusion In this article, we review the possible potential of different forensic analysis techniques for the evaluation of evidences, collected from criminal site. LA technique shows powerful potential for forensic glass analysis(42). DESI clearly illustrates the identification of biological samples, environmental study and to check the pharmaceuticals products validity(34). Stereo lithographic techniques are more precisely and accurately used for MRI data analysis(5). These emerging techniques will also play their key role to solve the issues related to forensic casework. . References 1.Suzuki Y, Sugita R, Suzuki S, MARUMO Y. Forensic Discrimination of Bottle Glass by Refractive Index Measurement and Analysis of Trace Elements with ICP-MS. Analytical sciences. 2000;16(11):1195-8. 2.Rodriguez-Celis E, Gornushkin I, Heitmann U, Almirall J, Smith B, Winefordner J, et al. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy as a tool for discrimination of glass for forensic applications. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry. 2008;391(5):1961-8. 3.Castro W, Trejos T, Naes B, Almirall JR. Comparison of high-resolution and dynamic reaction cell ICP-MS capabilities for forensic analysis of iron in glass. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry. 2008;392(4):663-72. 4.Joe Lopes A, MacDonald E, Wicker RB. Integrating stereolithography and direct print technologies for 3D structural electronics fabrication. 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The transfer of glass—part 1: Transfer of glass to individuals at different distances. Forensic science international. 1998;93(2):167-74. 18.Trejos T, Almirall JR. Effect of fractionation on the forensic elemental analysis of glass using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Analytical chemistry. 2004;76(5):1236-42. 19.Mokgalaka N, Gardeaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Torresdey J. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry: principles and applications. Applied Spectroscopy Reviews. 2006;41(2):131-50. 20.Watling R, Lynch B, Herring D. Use of Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometryfor Fingerprinting Scene of Crime Evidence. J Anal At Spectrom. 1997;12(2):195-203. 21.Schmidt T, Surmann J, Stephanowitz H, Hoffmann E. Identification of pharmaceutical glasses by laser ablation ICP-MS. Die Pharmazie. 2001;56(11):852-6. 22.Trejos T, Montero S, Almirall JR. Analysis and comparison of glass fragments by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and ICP-MS. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry. 2003;376(8):1255-64. 23.Becker JS, Dietze H-J, McLean JA, Montaser A. Ultratrace and isotope analysis of long-lived radionuclides by inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometry using a direct injection high efficiency nebulizer. Analytical chemistry. 1999;71(15):3077-84. 24.Sharp BL. Pneumatic nebulisers and spray chambers for inductively coupled plasma spectrometry. A review. Part 2. Spray chambers. J Anal At Spectrom. 1988;3(7):939-63. 25.Kahen K, Jorabchi K, Gray C, Montaser A. Spatial mapping of droplet velocity and size for direct and indirect nebulization in plasma spectrometry. Analytical chemistry. 2004;76(24):7194-201. 26.Mora J, Maestre S, Hernandis V, TodolÄ ± JL. Liquid-sample introduction in plasma spectrometry. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2003;22(3):123-32. 27.Trujillo IS, Alonso EV, de Torres AG, Pavà ³n JMC. Development of a solid phase extraction method for the multielement determination of trace metals in natural waters including sea-water by FI-ICP-MS. Microchemical Journal. 2012;101:87-94. 28.Gauvin R, Chen Y-C, Lee JW, Soman P, Zorlutuna P, Nichol JW, et al. Microfabrication of complex porous tissue engineering scaffolds using 3D projection stereolithography. Biomaterials. 2012;33(15):3824-34. 29.Zheng X, Deotte J, Alonso MP, Farquar GR, Weisgraber TH, Gemberling S, et al. Design and optimization of a light-emitting diode projection micro-stereolithography three-dimensional manufacturing system. Review of Scientific Instruments. 2012;83(12):125001. 30.Chin Ang K, Fai Leong K, Kai Chua C, Chandrasekaran M. Investigation of the mechanical properties and porosity relationships in fused deposition modelling-fabricated porous structures. Rapid Prototyping Journal. 2006;12(2):100-5. 31.Manicke NE, Wiseman JM, Ifa DR, Cooks RG. Desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) of phospholipids and sphingolipids: ionization, adduct formation, and fragmentation. Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. 2008;19(4):531-43. 32.Shin Y-S, Drolet B, Mayer R, Dolence K, Basile F. Desorption electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry of proteins. Analytical chemistry. 2007;79(9):3514-8. 33.Chen H, Li M, Zhang Y-P, Yang X, Lian J-J, Chen J-M. Rapid analysis of SVOC in aerosols by desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. 2008;19(3):450-4. 34.Green F, Salter T, Stokes P, Gilmore I, OConnor G. Ambient mass spectrometry: advances and applications in forensics. Surface and Interface Analysis. 2010;42(5):347-57. 35.Cotte-Rodrà ­guez I, Takà ¡ts Z, Talaty N, Chen H, Cooks RG. Desorption electrospray ionization of explosives on surfaces: sensitivity and selectivity enhancement by reactive desorption electrospray ionization. Analytical chemistry. 2005;77(21):6755-64. 36.Justes DR, Talaty N, Cotte-Rodriguez I, Cooks RG. Detection of explosives on skin using ambient ionization mass spectrometry. Chem Commun. 2007(21):2142-4. 37.Cotte-Rodriguez I, Hernandez-Soto H, Chen H, Cooks RG. In situ trace detection of peroxide explosives by desorption electrospray ionization and desorption atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. Analytical chemistry. 2008;80(5):1512-9. 38.Gross JH. Ambient mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry: Springer; 2011. p. 621-49. 39.Takats Z, Wiseman JM, Cooks RG. Ambient mass spectrometry using desorption electrospray ionization (DESI): instrumentation, mechanisms and applications in forensics, chemistry, and biology. Journal of Mass Spectrometry. 2005;40(10):1261-75. 40.Zhu L, Gamez G, Chen HW, Huang HX, Chingin K, Zenobi R. Realà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ time, onà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ line monitoring of organic chemical reactions using extractive electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry. 2008;22(19):2993-8. 41.Ifa D, Gumaelius L, Eberlin L, Manicke N, Cooks R. Forensic analysis of inks by imaging desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) mass spectrometry. Analyst. 2007;132(5):461-7. 42.Dodds AJ, Pollock EM, Land DP. Forensic Glass Analysis by LA-ICP-MS: Assessing the Feasibility of Correlating Windshield Composition and Supplier. 2010.

The Merchant Of Venice - Shylock: Villain Or Victim? Essay -- Merchant

Many people are villainous in the way they behave. Their villainous acts may be attributed to their desire to destroy others and in turn elevate themselves to a higher financial or social level. However, the root cause of their villainy may be a response to the treatment they have endured at the hands of others. In short, they have been taught villainy, rather than it being an integral part of their personality. In such instances, revenge can be a key motivator in inspiring them to act in a villainous way. It is on such occasions, where villains have themselves been exposed to villainy, that the distinction between villain and victim becomes blurred. Victims are usually characterised in the way that they are persecuted for circumstances, which are beyond their control for example their appearance. In plays and novels, the victim is sometimes a character included to highlight the prejudices and pre-conceptions of the social climate in which the play or novel was written. In the †˜Merchant of Venice’ it can be argued that Shylocks character undergoes a metamorphosis from villain to victim. However, in this essay I hope to discuss whether in fact Shylock can be defined as either villain or victim and to form an opinion of what Shakespeare intended. First we shall look at the aspects of the text that portray Shylock as a villain. We are first introduced to Shylock in Act I Scene iii where we learn of his usury. It is in this scene that Bassanio seeks Shylock out and asks to borrow money from him in Antonio’s name. Also in this scene do we learn of Shylock’s hatred for Antonio and the Christians: ‘ How like a fawning publican he looks! / I hate him for he is a Christian; ’ (Act I Scene iii) Shylock also displays elements of belligerence in his refusal to ever forgive the Christians. We also learn of his intent regarding Antonio’s life: ‘ If I can catch him once upon the hip, / I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.’ (Act I Scene iii) Shylock also shows himself to be devious and cunning by hiding his hatred beneath a faà §ade of friendship in order to entice Antonio to become indebted to him, not just with money but with his life. Antonio is very naà ¯ve regarding the terms of the bond taking the ‘pound of flesh’ clause to be a show of friendship not hatred: ‘ The Hebrew will turn Christian: he grows kind.’ (Act I Scene iii) Perhaps he receives the terms... ...uted among his sworn enemies. Although Shylock pursues his revenge fervently he still has the audience’s sympathy because of the unfair and harsh punishment he receives. It strikes a modern day audience as grossly unfair that the severity of his punishment reflects not his crime, but his race. He is a victim of the Christians’ intolerance of other races and ideas. In conclusion, I feel that ultimately Shylock is a villain. The way he treats those he is close to, for example his daughter Jessica exposes his vindictive and ultimately evil character. He lets his lust for vengeance engulf all other aspects of his life and his complete lack of mercy towards Antonio renders him a villain in the eyes of the audience. We can only guess at the way in which Shakespeare intended Shylock to be portrayed. I feel that Shakespeare intended Shylock to be victim, he was created to challenge the pre-conceptions and ideologies of the Elizabethan era. Having said this, I feel personally that it is not productive for us to simply categorise Shylock as either victim or villain. Through Shylock, Shakespeare explores the way in which the line between the oppressed and the oppressor can become blurred.

Power of Symbols and Symbolism in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Let

The Power of the Symbol in The Scarlet Letter All classic literature uses symbolism in one way or another. Nathaniel Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter is no different. The very basis of every character, their personal appearance and way they act revolves around one thing, the Scarlet Letter. The scarlet letter is an "A", in crimson fabric, worn by a Puritan woman for her act of adultery. Its very existence is solely to cause shame and remorse on Hester Prynne and her daughter Pearl, who was conceived in her lust, but it comes to stand for so much more. All of Hawthorne's main characters; Hester Prynne, Pearl, Reverend Dimmesdale, and Roger Chillingworth, feel the wrath of one piece of cloth and learn how character can be created or destroyed by the simplest things. Hester Prynne is the cause for all of a Puritan woman with more than her weight to bear. She was sent to America by her husband, Roger Chillingworth, where she committed adultery with her Reverend Dimmesdale and conceived a child, Pearl. In the beginning of the book, her beauty shines through the plain appearance of Puritan women. "The young woman was tall, with a figure of perfect elegance on a large scale. She had dark and abundant hair, so glossy that it threw off the sunshine with a gleam, and a face which, besides being beautiful from regularity of feature and richness of complexion, had the impressiveness belonging to a marked brown and deep black eyes. She was lady like, too, after the manner of the feminine gentility of those days; characterized by a certain state and dignity, rather than which is now recognized as this indication."(55). But, with her sin, comes the dreaded Scarlet A. The letter, which she so beautifully embroidered, se... ...aders with knowledge and a lifelong lesson. The Scarlet Letter teaches everyone to be able to see the sin and actual insides of someone's soul. After uncovering their deep, dark secrets, one is taught not to judge or persecute the person because of what their heart contains, for their heart may be cleaner than one's own. Works Cited and Consulted: Bradley, Sculley, Beatty, Richmond Croom, and E. Hudson Long (1996). "The Social Criticism of a Public Man." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 47-49). San Diego: Greenhaven. Chase, Richard (1996). "The Ambiguity of the Scarlet Letter." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 145-152). San Diego: Greenhaven.   Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. New York: St. Martins, 1991.   Scharnhorst, Gary. The Critical Response to Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter. New York: Greenwood, 1992.

Circular Flow of Economic Activity Essay

Introduction To analyze an economy as a whole economists developed different models. The significance of these economic models enable us to understand the economic activities more vividly. For this purpose an economy can be classified in to four major sector. Which includes households, firms, government and foreign sector or external sector. There is a simple model which constitute two sectors, that is households and firms. Its working can be understand with the help ofcircular flow of economic activity of two sector model. Gradually the role of government considered as an important one and the government sector also included to this model. This is popularly known as the three sector model economic activity. But now the four sector model become more important, because almost all the countries are opened and they are actively participating in foreign trade (export and import). So, the four sector model representing an open economy. Here this hub very briefly explained about the interactions betwee n these four sectors and its working. Four Sectors of an Economy As mentioned above there are four integral parts or sectors consisting in a four sector model economy. They are house hold sector, firms, government and foreign sector. Each of them are briefly explained below. Household sector : It consist of peoples or individuals. House hold sector provides factors for productions like labor, land, building, capital etc. Consumers are also listed under household sector. Firms : It refers to the various industries which providing goods and services to satisfy the demand of households. Firms are hiring the factor services supplied by households and firms rewarded them in various forms like wages for labor, rent for land and building etc. Government : It is an important part of any economy. The main function of government sector includes policy making, implementation of policies, law and order etc. The government may make fiscal policy or monetary policy. They adjust policy instruments to stabilize the economy. The instruments may in the form of tax, subsidies, factor payments etc. Foreign sector : foreign sector is an integral one for any open economy. Since the international trade become more active every country take it as a vital one to make policy, improve national growth etc. in an open  economy, factor rewards are flowing both in to the economy and out to the economy. Whatever may be the flow of transaction s it will come under the foreign sector or external sector. It includes imports, exports, granting loans between countries, payments for renting services like shipping, air services etc. The Four Sector Model The economic activities or interactions between these four sectors of an economy can be explain with the help of a figure as showing below. Household Sector Initially household sector provides its factors of productions like land, labor, capital and organizer to the firms. And they will be rewarded by firms in different kinds. That is a labor will earn wage, capital will earn interest, organizer will earn profit and land will earn rent. After making products or output households will demand it and they pay their consumption expenditure. Here the factors of production are supplying through factor market and goods and services (output) are supplying through goods market. Similarly, households interact with government sector in two ways. Firstly, the household sector will pays taxes, which may direct or indirect taxes. Then the government may spend money in the economy for household sector in the forms like pensions, scholarships etc. Household sector interact with foreign sector in two kinds. Household sector receive transfer payments from abroad for providing their services in abroad. When the economy import something households will spen d their income on imported goods. So, import is considered as a leakage from the economy. Firms Firms are producing the goods and services. For that firms are hiring factor services supplied by household sector. After the production process they will sell the output in the goods market or commodity market. So, the firm sector will receive consumption expenditure of household sector. Firms are actively interact with government. Since taxes from business sector is much important for government, it is the expenses of firms and revenue for government. Sometimes government may provide subsidies for business firms by aiming different purposes. So, subsidies are the expenses of government sector and a alms for the business firms. Business firms are very actively  interact in foreign sector. The income of firms increase when they export goods and services to abroad. Similarly when theydemand capital goods, machines, raw materials etc, it will consider as an expenditure to the firms. Government Sector Government sector interact with household sector by providing transfer payments in the form of pensions, bonus, scholarships etc. Similarly government earn both direct and indirect taxes from household sector. Government sector also earn taxes from firms from their business activities. Above all government provides many assisting support for enriching business sector like granting subsidies, price ceiling etc. Today, every government has a touch with foreigners. They also assisting by providing loans, technical assistance etc. so, there will also be the inflow or outflow of income and output. Foreign Sector Foreign sector plays a vital role in an open economy. When household sector demand more, the import will increase and lead to a deficit foreign trade account. On the other hand foreign sector make payments on services provided by household sector in abroad.s Foreign sector pays on commodities exported by firms to abroad. So, it is a injection to the economy. Similarly foreign sector also pays on the service provided by firms in the form of air services, software etc. when tourists visits domestic economy, they will spend money, so it is also an inflow to the economy. Similarly government sector also interact with government. If government make any trade with foreign sector, there will be inflow or outflow of income. Conclusion In short, four sector model economy is an open economic model. Which showing a simple picture of the economy and economic activities. In a four sector model economy all the sectors are interacting with each other in many ways. So, it reduce the complexity for understanding the complicated activities.

Hello My Name Is Andrea

Don't drop from six to fire-day delivery; go the other way' (Source A). Adding new services to the postal service can increase numbers of clients and also money. Some may think the USPS will lose money but answer this question, â€Å"who would want poor mail service? † no one, that is why USPS should ass effort to improve experience for the customers. â€Å"It seems counterintuitive to add service when you're losing money, but people have less that in the system precisely because of spotty service†(Source A).Including finer service will increase new clients and money. Canceling delivery days on Saturdays is thought to be a good strategy to save money for the USPS. â€Å"Eliminating Saturday mail delivery would save $40 billion over a decade† (Source F). This sentence displays that improving mail services with strategic procedures will boost up financially the USPS. Mimi don't need a full service post office every few blocks in New York, for example. Some centers could be for letters only, others for packages.That way you cut down on staff size and service required to and from each. † USPS not hiring people is a good strategy to save money while still delivering mail to its members. Great strategies will help USPS own budget while having satisfying the customers. Instead of cutting back service and losing money, USPS updating new guidelines will increase mail services. Eliminating mail on certain days will save money and at the same time deliver great service to the customer.

Quality Nursing Care

NURSING EXAMPLE A Summary of Proposed Research Program for Master of Philosophy Title: The Delivery of Quality Nursing Care: A Grounded Theory Study of the Nurses' Perspective Abstract The purpose of this study is to explore and describe the delivery of quality nursing care from the perspective of practising nurses working in the acute public hospital setting of Western Australia (WA). The study will examine the actions and interactions attributed to quality, and factors identified as enhancing or inhibiting the delivery of quality nursing care. A grounded theory approach is proposed. The sample for the study will be drawn from nurses working in an acute public hospital located in Perth, WA. Data will be collected using semi-structured interviews and some observation. It is estimated that approximately 10-15 interviews will be performed. Theoretical sampling will guide the selection of participants. The significance of this research will be to increase understanding of this complex phenomenon and contribute to efforts aimed at improving and maintaining quality nursing care within the current context of the WA health care system. A substantive theory explaining the process of quality care, focussing on the nurses' perspective, in an acute public hospital setting, will be developed. Implications for practice will be discussed and directions for further research in this area will be provided. Objectives The purpose of this study is to explore and describe the delivery of quality nursing care from the perspective of practising nurses, working in the acute public hospital setting of WA. The study will examine the actions and interactions attributed to quality, and factors identified as enhancing or inhibiting the delivery of quality nursing care. The objectives guiding this proposed study are: 1. To explore and describe nurses' perceptions of the meaning of quality nursing care. 2. To describe nurses' experiences in the delivery of nursing care given to patients in hospital and to compare these with their expectations of quality nursing care. 3. To explore factors identified by nurses as enhancing and as inhibiting quality nursing care. 4. To develop a substantive theory which explains the process used to deliver quality nursing care in an acute public hospital setting, as perceived by nurses. Background The provision of quality patient care is a priority in all health care institutions (Erith-Toth & Spencer, 1991). Formal definitions of what constitutes quality are numerous (Ambler Peters, 1991), as are the approaches used to assess the quality of patient care (Harvey, 1991; MacGuire, 1991). Although much has been written about the phenomenon of quality care, significant variations exist in its interpretation and use, â€Å"unaware or undeterred by the conceptual confusion, quality care continues to be assured, controlled, evaluated and managed in the Health Service today† (Attree, 1993, p. 55). Furthermore, definitions and assessment of quality have rarely considered the reality faced by nurses on a daily basis, in the practice and delivery of quality care. Quality nursing care has been studied from various perspectives using different methods. Much of the research reported in the literature has been quantitative in nature and undertaken in countries other than Australia, pa rticularly North America. Some studies have focussed on the measurement of quality nursing care (Gilloran, McGlew, McKee, Robertson & Wight, 1993; MacGuire, 1991; Pearson, Durant & Punton, 1989; Kitson, 1985), or the meaning of quality nursing care from either the nurses' perspective (Janhonen, 1993; Forchuk ; Kirkpatrick, 1991; Whelan, 1988; Jenkins, 1988) or the patients' perspective (Irurita, 1993; Erith-Toth & Spencer, 1991; Deeny & McCrea, 1991; Rempusheski, Chamberlain, Picard, Ruzanski & Collier, 1988). Other studies have compared the perceptions of quality nursing care from the perspective of nurses and patients (Norman, Redfern, Tomalin & Oliver, 1992; Yonge, 1989; Varholak, 1989; Board, 1988). Of the studies that have explored nurses' perceptions of quality care, two included some elements of the delivery of nursing care (Forchuk ; Kirkpatrick, 1991; Jenkins, 1988). Those studies differ from this proposed study in context, as both were carried out in North America and used health settings other than acute public hospitals. Forchuk ; Kirkpatrick (1991) used survey methods in their study of quality care in a psychiatric facility where nurses indicated that the nursing care they 2 delivered was â€Å"†¦ the best possible under unfavourable conditions† (p8). Barriers to quality nursing care were identified as â€Å"heavy workload and staffing issues† (p8). However, the results of this study are limited by use of a convenience sample and administration of a questionnaire for which reliability and validity were not demonstrated. Jenkins studied quality nursing care in a small hospital in the United States and used a similar design to that proposed for this study. Using the grounded theory method, the characteristics of quality nursing care from the nurses' perspective were found to be â€Å"technical care, adequate time, assessment, observation, teaching, communication, and individualised care†. Some enhancing and inhibiting factors were identified, as well as positive and negative outcomes in the status of the patients. This proposed study is justified in that although the methodology is similar, the study by Jenkins was undertaken in a small hospital, whilst this study will be undertaken in a large acute public hospital. Furthermore, the cultural aspects of this proposed study are different. Another study of quality nursing care was carried out within the context of an acute public hospital setting in WA (Irurita, 1993). This study used grounded theory to explore quality nursing care from the patients' perspective. Patients described different levels of care and suggested that high quality nursing care could not be expected due to intervening conditions such as lack of time, high patient turnover, competing demands on the nurse, lack of consistency and continuity in nurses assigned to their care, ageism, shortage of staff, lack of co-ordination on ward, and communication problems between doctornurse- patients. These findings raise questions requiring further exploration, including the nurses' perspective. A number of factors may determine the quality of care delivered by nurses to patients. A review of the literature by Fitzpatrick, While, and Roberts (1992) identified nursing competence, use of research, communication skills, care management and organisation of workload, provision of health education and health promotion, creative thinking and reflection as elements of high quality patient care. A number of research studies have equated the quality of nursing with the ability of the nurse to exhibit caring behaviours towards their patients. Some of these studies have explored the behaviours identified by nurses (From, 1992; Clarke & Wheeler, 1992; Mangold, 1991; Chipman, 1991; Schaefer & Lucke, 1990; Morrison, 1990; Forrest, 1989; Larson, 1986), while others the behaviours identified by patients (Fosbinder, 1991; Cronin & Harrison, 1988; Brown, 1986; Rieman, 1986; Larson, 1984). Some of the research has compared the views of nurses and patients (Appleton, 1993; Smit & Spoelstra, 1991; Lapsley, 1989; Larson, 1987; Mayer, 1986). Whereas caring has been described as an important component of quality nursing care, exploratory research is lacking in the study of factors which may influence the nurses' ability to exhibit caring behaviours under varying conditions, and what additional factors may be involved in the delivery of quality nursing care. There is evidence in the literature to suggest that although nurses may be capable of providing quality care and know what constitutes quality care, their performance in practice may be affected by factors such as decreased numbers and the resulting reduction in available time, which can prevent the delivery of quality nursing care (Forchuk ; Kirkpatrick, 1991; Hendrickson, Doddato ; Kovner, 1990). A recent survey of 2,488 Australian nurses (Millis ; Tattam, 1994) found that budgetary cuts and management restructuring were having a negative impact on nurses' work environment. Increased workload, reduced standards of care (particularly in the public sector), and a lack of improvement in patient care were also said to be apparent. In WA, hundreds of nurses protested at a rally organised by the Australian Nursing Federation to express concerns about the effects of economic cutbacks in the WA health environment. Specifically, the dismantling of the WA Nurses' Career Structure and the reduction of nursing positions were said to be having a negative effect on the delivery of quality nursing care (Bartley, 1994). Nursing staff in the hospital environment of WA are currently challenged to maintain and improve the quality of care in the face of changing work patterns and moves to promote earlier discharge of hospitalised patients resulting from increasing economic restrictions (Health Observer, 1994). The indication that problems exist in the delivery of quality nursing care in WA warrants closer examination, to discover how nurses deliver quality care and factors which nurses perceive to affect the delivery of quality nursing care in the resent context of acute public hospitals in WA. Increasingly it is recognised that gaps exist between theory and practice (Chine ; Jacobs, 1987; Riley ; Oermann, 1992), an understanding may exist among nurses as to what constitutes quality nursing care, but what actually occurs in practice, under varying conditions, may differ from the recognised standard. Documentation of strategies used by nurses to maintain quality when conditions are adverse are 3 bsent in the literature, as is information indicating what circumstances are favourable to quality care provision and what constitutes the highest quality of nursing care. The suggestion that the delivery of quality nursing care within the public hospital context of WA may be subject to variation and be influenced by different conditions requires further investigation. As stated earlier in this proposal, some research has been performed in other countries on this phenomenon, but few studies have explored quality nursing care from the perspective of practising nurses. The use of the grounded theory method to research the phenomenon of quality nursing care allows exploration in terms of the current time, place and culture and can give new insights into a topic central to the practice of nursing (Chenitz ; Swanson, 1986). Furthermore, the gap between theory and practice may be reduced by a substantive theory developed in this way. Significance The significance of this research will be to increase our understanding of this complex phenomenon and contribute to efforts aimed at improving and maintaining quality nursing care, within the context of the WA health care system. A substantive theory explaining the process of quality nursing care, focussing on the nurses' perspective, in an acute public hospital setting will be developed. Implications for practice will be discussed and directions for further research in this area will be provided. Research Method A qualitative research method is proposed for this study, using the grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). This method, which has its roots in Symbolic Interactionism, will reveal the reality of the quality ursing for nurses by interpreting data using a systematic set of procedures to develop a theory of the phenomenon, grounded in the findings (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Sample Selection The sample for the study will be drawn from nurses working in one area of an acute public hospital located in Perth, WA. Initially, a purposive sampling technique will be used to select nurses for interview. Only Registered Nurses with a minimum of six months post registration nursing experience (of which at least three must have been worked in the study area) will be approached. Participants will need to be able to reflect on and be willing to share detailed experiential information about the phenomenon. Volunteers will be sought initially at staff meetings and a contact number will be left on the notice board in each of the ward areas. Further participants will be approached using a theoretical sampling technique where initial analysis of data guides the researcher to subsequent specific data sources (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). When this technique is used, sampling continues until ‘theoretical saturation' occurs. This is recognised by the establishment and denseness of identified categories as well as an absence of new concepts in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). It is estimated that approximately 10-15 participants will be selected for interview, the final number being determined by theoretical saturation. Procedure Data will be collected from nurses through tape-recorded interviews guided by questions reflecting the objectives of the study (Appendix A). A semi-structured interviews technique will be used where, â€Å"use of the interview guide is not rigidly adhered to by the interviewer† (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986, p. 67). In this technique the researcher explores different aspects of the topic in detail using probes such as how, what, where and when. Interviews will take place in mutually agreeable private venues where the risk of interruptions is perceived to be minimal. Basic demographic information will be gathered from participants before the interview commences (Appendix B). The primary source of data will be the transcribed interviews, however, published literature and some observation will be used as additional data sources. The observations will be performed by the researcher (who is regularly assigned to clinical areas) and recorded by field notes. The main objective of these observations will be to verify data obtained by interview. Furthermore, additional aspects may be noted to be included in subsequent interviews. Data Analysis The constant comparative method of data analysis will be used, whereby data are simultaneously collected, coded and analysed, in a way that allows the creativity necessary for the generation of a theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Interviews will be transcribed verbatim on a word processor and organised for 4 analysis using the Ethnograph computer software (Seidel, 1988). This package numbers each line of the interview transcript and allows for segments of the interview to be coded and selected as required. Firstly, interview transcripts will be coded line by line, sentence by sentence, by a process of ‘open coding', to identify and label common themes and categories by asking questions about the content (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). This will be done by extensively reading the data and listening to the tapes. Categories and subcategories will be developed from this, abbreviated and ‘mapped' onto the numbered interview transcript through the Ethnograph. Coded segments from the interviews will be accessed from the computer for ‘Axial Coding'. This involves putting the data back together again in new ways by making connections between the coded categories and subcategories. ‘Memos' and ‘diagrams' will be used throughout the process of analysis. ‘Selective coding' in which the core category is identified, relationships validated and sub-categories expanded, will take place before a ‘conditional matrix' is constructed and a substantive theory developed (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Reliability and Validity A number of strategies will be employed throughout this study to ensure that he data collection and interpretation accurately reflects the phenomenon. Guba (1981) and LeCompte and Goetz (1982) discuss a number of ways in which reliability and validity issues of qualitative research can be addressed. This study has been designed to incorporate measures to address these issues as follows: †¢ To avoid bias in the data collection and analysis, the researcher (who possesses current personal experience of nursing in a hospital setting) will raise awareness of own preconceptions and bias to the topic by being interviewed by another researcher, using the proposed interview guide. The researcher will avoid imposing these preconceptions on the data collection and analysis. Furthermore, interview transcripts will be reviewed by an independent person to detect the presence of any such bias. A personal diary will also be kept. †¢ Interviews will be transcribed verbatim and transcripts will be checked for accuracy by listening to the tape recording. †¢ The process of data collection and analysis will be clearly described. †¢ During the coding of the data, other researchers will be asked to separately code segments of the transcripts to confirm the categories identified by the researcher. Once the description of the phenomenon is complete, a sample of participants will be approached and asked to validate the description by reading it and seeing if it makes sense in terms of their own experience. Ethical Issues The proposed research will be submitted through the Human Research Ethical Committee at Curtin University of Technology. The study has already been approved for implementation by the Nursing Research and Ethical Review Committee at Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital. Each participant will be informed of the purpose of the study. Participants' personal contribution together with their human rights will be explained and the opportunity to ask questions about the study will be provided. Once the participant is satisfied with the requirements of the study, a consent form will be signed. The consent outlines the purpose of the study, its voluntary nature, the right to withdraw at any time without penalty, as well as providing an assurance that all information provided will be treated in a non-identifiable, confidential manner (Appendix C). The consent form will be signed by the participant and the researcher, and a copy will be kept by each. Participants will be identified on the interview transcript by a numerical number. The identity of the participants will be known only to the researcher who will keep names and workplace details in a secure place, separate to the transcripts (this information will be required if further contact is necessary). In keeping with the requirements of the University, the transcribed interviews and field notes will be kept for a period of five years. Facilities and Resources The majority of expenses related to this project have already been funded by the Nursing Division of Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital. Additional expenses are estimated as follows: Photocopying and paper 5 reams @ $8 $440 5 Inter-Library Loans $200 Audio tapes 5 tapes @ $3 $15 Batteries 6 batteries @ $1 $6 Travel $100 Micro cassette recorder $400 Total: $1 161 Data Storage Data collected will be qualitative in nature and will be stored on a computer while analyses using Ethnograph computer software are completed. The data files will be maintained for five years after which they will be destroyed. Timeline June-August Year 1 Proposal submitted to University Ethics Committee August Year 1-January Year 2 Data collection and analysis February-June Year 2 Writing of final report 6 References Ambler Peters, D. (1991). Measuring quality: Inspection of opportunity. Holistic Nurse Practitioner, 5(3), 1-7. Appleton, C. (1993). The art of nursing: The experience of patients and nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18, 892-899. Attree, M. (1993). An analysis of the concept â€Å"quality† as it relates to contemporary nursing care. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30(4), 355-369. Bartley, J. (1994). Hundreds of nurses protest parliament rally huge success. Australian Nursing Federation Newsletter, 10(4), 1-4. Board, R. F. J. (1988). The relationship of expertise to views of quality of nursing care for hospitalized prenatal women. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Michigan. (From Combined International Nursing and Allied Health Literature, 1994, Abstract No. 1990114296) Brown, L. (1986). The experience of care: patient perspectives. Topics in Clinical Nursing, July, 56-62, Chenitz, C. , ; Swanson, C. (1986). From practice to grounded theory: Qualitative research in nursing. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. Chinn, P. L. , ; Jacobs, M. K. (1987). Theory and nursing. The C. V. Mosby Company, USA. Chipman, Y. (1991). Caring: Its meaning and place in the practice of nursing. Journal of Nursing Education, 30(4), 171-175. Clarke, J. B. , ; Wheeler, S. J. (1992). A view of the phenomenon of caring in nursing practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 17, 1283-1290. Cronin, S. N. , ; Harrison, B. (1988). Importance of nurse caring behaviours as perceived by patients after myocardial infarction. Heart and Lung, 17(4), 374-380. Deeny, P. , ; McCrea, H. (1991). Stoma care: the patient's perspective. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 39-46. Erith-Toth, P. , & Spencer, M. (1991). A survey of patient perception of quality care. Journal of Enterostomal Therapy Nursing, 18, 122-125. Fitzpatrick, J. M. , While, A. E. , & Roberts, J. D. (1992). The role of the nurse in high quality patient care: a review of the literature. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 17, 1210-1219. Forchuk, C. , & Kirkpatrick, H. (1991). Nurses' perception of quality of care. Canadian Journal of Nursing Administration, September/October, 7-16. Forrest, D. (1989). The experience of caring. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 14, 815-823. Fosbinder, D. M. (1991). Nursing care through the eyes of the patient. DNSc Thesis, University of San Diego (From Combined International Nursing and Allied Health Literature, 1994, Abstract No. 1992143848). From, M. A. (1992). The development of a caring nursing student. Abstract from Book of Abstracts, International State of the Science Congress, Washington DC, August, 208. Gilloran, A. J. , McGlew, T. , McKee, K. , Robertson, A. , ; Wight, D. (1993). Measuring the quality of care in psychogeriatric wards. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18, 269-275. Glaser, B. , ; Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine. Guba, E. S. 1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29, 75-92. Harvey, G. (1991). An evaluation of approaches to assessing the quality of nursing care using (predetermined) quality assurance tools. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 277-286. Health Observer (1994). Silver Chain promotes early discharge. May, 18. Hendrickson, G. and Doddato, T. M. (1989). Setting priorities during the shortage. Nursing Outlook, 37(6), 280-284. Hendrickson, G. , Doddato, T. M. , ; Kovuer, C. T. (1990). How do nurses use their time? Journal of Nursing Administration, 20(3), 31-37. Irurita, V. (1993). From person to patient: Nursing care from the patient's perspective. Unpublished report, Department of Nursing Research, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, WA. Janhonen, S. (1993). Finnish nurse instructors' view of the core of nursing. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30(2), 157-169. Jenkins, J. B. (1988). Quality in patient care as perceived by nursing care providers. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Texas at Austin. (From Combined International Nursing and Allied Health Literature, 1994, Abstract No. 112616) Kitson, A. L. (1986). Indicators of quality in nursing care – an alternative approach. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 11, 133-144. 7 Larson, P. J. (1984). Important nurse caring behaviours perceived by patients with cancer. Oncology Nurses Forum, 11(6), 46-50. Larson, P. J. (1986). Cancer nurses' perceptions of caring. Cancer Nursing, 9(2), 86-91 Larson, P. J. (1987). Comparison of cancer patients' and professional nurses' perceptions of important nurse caring behaviours. Heart and Lung, 16(2), 187-193. Lapsley, J. (1989). The caring nurse: Patient dimensions perceptions and expectations. Unpublished project, Perth, WA. Le Compte, M. D. , & Goetz, J. P. (1982). Problems of reliability and validity in ethnographic research. Review of Educational Research, 52(1), 31-60. MacGuire, J. M. (1991). Quality care assessed: using the Senior Monitor index in three wards for the elderly before and after a change in primary nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 511-520. Mangold, A. M. (1991). Senior nursing students’ and professional nurses’ perceptions of effective caring behaviours: A comparative study. Journal of Nursing Education, 30(3), 134-9. Mayer, D. K. (1986). Cancer patients’ and families perceptions of nursing caring behaviours. Topics in Clinical Nursing, 8(2), 63-69. Millis, G. , & Tattum, A. (1994). ANJ readership survey. The Australian Nursing Journal, 1(6), 14-16. Morrison, P. (1990). The caring attitude in nursing practice: a repertory grid study of trained nurses’ perceptions. Nurse Education Today, 11, 3-12. Norman, I. J. , Redfern, S. J. , Tomalin, D. A. , & Oliver, S. (1992). Developing Flanagann’s critical incident technique to elicit indicators of high and low quality nursing care from patients and their nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 17, 590-600. Pearson, A. , Durant, I. , & Punton, S. 1989). Determining quality in a unit where nursing is the primary intervention. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 14, 269-273. Rempusheski, V. F. , Chamberlain, S. L. , Picard, H. B. , Ruzanski, J. , & Collier, M. (1988). Expected and received care: patient perceptions. Nursing Administrative Quarterly, 12(3), 42-50. Rieman, D. J. (1986). Noncaring and caring in the clinical setting: patientsâ€℠¢ decriptions. Topics in Clinical Nursing, 8(2), 30-36. Riley, D. , & Oermann, M. (1992). Clinical teaching in nursing education (2nd edition). National League for Nursing: New York. Schaefer, K. M. & Lucke, K. T. (1990). Caring – the work of the Clinical Nurse Specialist. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 4(2), 87-92. Seidal, J. V. (1988). The Ethnograph version 3. 0 [computer program]. Corvallis, O. R. Qualis Research Associates. Smit, J. & Spoelstra, S. (1991). Do patients and nurses agree? Caring Magazine, October, 34-36. Strauss, A. , & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research. Graounded theory procedures and techniques. Sage: California. Varholak, D. M. (1989). Experiencing quality nursing care in a long term setting: A patient-nurse perspective. Unpublished manuscript. Columbia University Teachers College. Whelan, J. (1988). Ward sisters' management styles and their effects on nurses' perceptions of quality care. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 13, 125-138. Yonge, O. J. ( 1989). Nurses ‘ and patients' ‘ perceptions of constant care in an acute care psychiatric facility: A descriptive qualitative study. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Alberta, Canada. 8 APPENDIX A Interview Guide What does quality nursing care mean to you? How does one ensure that quality nursing care is given? Give examples, in your experience, where you think high quality nursing care was given. Describe an incident). What are some of the most important aspects to consider in the delivery of quality nursing care? Can these be prioritised? What factors (if any) prevent you from achieving the delivery of quality nursing care to your patients (or patients generally)? What factors enable or help in the delivery of quality nursing care? Give examples of where improvement s in nursing care delivery could have been made. How would you rate the quality of care given to patients in your area of work? 9 APPENDIX B Demographic Information 1. Length of time employed at this hospital:_____________ 2. Length of time employed as a nurse:_____________ 3. Length of time employed on present ward:___________ 4. Level: New graduate______ Level 1_____ Level 2______ 5. Part-time______ Full-time______ 6. Initial nursing education: Hospital_________ College/University__________ 7. Year completed__________ 8. Post basic educational achievements: ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ 9. Current studies: ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ 10. Male_______ Female________ 11. Age_________